Philippine History
Austronesian-speaking peoples initially populated Philippine islands. These peoples arrived by boat, and set up separate communities known as barangay, each of which was led by a chieftain or datu. Initially, the religious beliefs and practices were animistic, as was true throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
Economically, some of these communities were still engaged in hunting and fishing; others, in slash and burn agriculture; and still others developed the intricate rice terraces which are a hydraulic engineering marvel. These communities traded among themselves as well as with the people of neighboring and far-flung countries of what we now call China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, and the Arab world – to whom the peoples of the Philippines exported, among other things, betel nuts, pearls, tortoise shells and from whom the peoples in the Philippines developed its written scripts and from whom it imported porcelain, silk, bronze gongs, and semi-precious stones.
There were four social classes in ancient Filipino society: the chiefs, nobles, freemen and the slaves. The datu or the chief headed a barangay or community. His family, relatives and elders belonged to the maharlika group of nobles. The freemen or middle class belonged to the timawa group. Men who were born free or freed from slavery composed the lowest social class because they had no property and were under the control of their master.[1]
The unit of government was the barangay. The barangay varied in population from 30 to 100 families. The early barangays were independent of each other. The head was called datu and was the chief executive, legislator, judge, and military commander.[2]
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, the indios (natives) had reached different levels of political development, including simple communal groups, debt peonage (often erroneously described as slavery) and proto-feudal confederations.
The Spaniards imposed a feudal system, concentrating populations under their control into towns and estates. During the first two centuries of their occupation, the Spaniards used the Philippines mainly as a connecting point for their China-Acapulco (Mexico) trade. The country's economic backwardness was reinforced by Roman Catholicism, which was practiced in a form that retained many pre-colonial elements such as animism while incorporating feudal aspects of the colonizers' religion such as dogmatism, authoritarianism and patriarchal oppression. The Spaniards were never able to consolidate political control over the entire archipelago, with Muslims and indigenous resisting the colonizers most effectively. Among the groups that were subjugated, there were numerous localized revolts throughout the Spanish occupation.
In the 19th century, the Philippines was opened to world trade, allowing the limited entry of liberal ideas. By the late 19th century, there was a distinct Filipino nationalist movement, which erupted into a revolution in 1896, culminating with the establishment of Asia's first republican government in 1898.
Spain laid the foundation for a feudal health care system. The religious orders built charity hospitals, often next to churches, dispensing services to the indio. Medical education was not extended to the indio until late in the 19th century, through the University of Santo Tomas. This feudal system of the rich extending charity to the poor persists to this day among many church-run as well as non-sectarian institutions.
Despite the 333 years of Spanish colonization and political rule,the Spaniards have not really conquered the Filipinos. Throughout the islands there were Filipinos who opposed Spanish sovereignty.
The Filipinos fought in no les than a hundred revolts. These revolts failed ,for gallantry and courage alone were not enough to crush superior Spanish arms. Militarily, the Filipinos were not prepared to fight. Lacking training in warfare and without superior arms to fight with.
The ideas of liberalism, a product of French revolution, spread throughout Europe and other parts of the world. The motto, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity became the battlecry especially of people who were under foreign rule. The political theories of social philosophers like Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and John Locke became very popular because these theories criticized absolutism. These social philosophers believe that people had the right to change and establish a new government if the existing government no longer meet their needs.[3]
These ideas spread to the Philippines and helped erase from the minds of certain Filipinos, notably the intelligentsia, false ideas about human rights.[4]
A new group in Philippine society emerged as a result of the economic prosperity. The middle class was composed of businessmen, farmers, teachers and other professionals who were greatly benefited by the improved economy of the colony. They soon occupied a high position in the society. When they became influential they criticized the unequal treatment of the Spanish authorities towards the Filipinos. They echoed the sentiments of Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau and others on the art of humane management of the government.[5]
The first Philippine Republic was short-lived. Spain had lost a war with the United States. The Philippines was illegally ceded to the United States at the Treaty of Paris for US$20 million, together with Cuba and Puerto Rico.
A Filipino-American War broke out as the United States attempted to establish control over the islands. The war lasted for more than 10 years, resulting in the death of more than 600,000 Filipinos. Historians have described the little-known war as the "first Vietnam", where US troops first used tactics such as strategic hamleting and scorched-earth policy to "pacify" the natives.
The United States established an economic system giving the colonizers full rights to the country's resources. The Spanish feudal system was not dismantled; in fact, through the system of land registration that favored the upper Filipino classes, tenancy became more widespread during the US occupation. A native elite, including physicians trained in the United States, was groomed to manage the economic and political system of the country. The U.S. also introduced western models of educational and health-care systems, which reinforced elitism, and a colonial mentality that persists to this day, mixed with the Spanish feudal patron-client relationship.
Militant peasant and workers' groups were formed during the U.S. occupation despite the repressive situation. A movement for Philippine independence, involving diverse groups, continued throughout the occupation. A Commonwealth government was established in 1935 to allow limited self-rule but the Second World War and the Japanese occupation interrupted this. Mainly socialists and communists, known by their acronym, HUKS, led the guerilla movement against Japanese fascism.
The road to self-rule and independence was a thorny one. It began with attempts for reforms under Spain. When this does not materialize, the Filipinos rose up in arms, first against Spain and then against the United States, until finally succeeding in securing autonomy and a promise of independence from the Americans. However, this dream was unfortunately shattered when the Japanese invaded and occupied the Philippines for four years. The Japanese tried to win the Filipinos with their promise of Asia for the Asians, but to no avail. The Japanese ruled with an iron hand and the Filipinos, although subjected to untold sufferings and hardships, were able to endure because of the will to live. The Filipinos were finally liberated from the Japanese when the latter surrendered to the Americans on August 15, 1945. The Commonwealth government returned to the Philippines from the US to complete the ten-year transition for independence. The Filipinos quest for independence finally ended with the proclamation of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946.[6]
Philippine Society
Politics
The political system of the Philippines was basically pattered after the U.S., with a bicameral legislature and a president elected every four years, limited to one re-election. Philippine democracy remained elitist with two political parties taking turns at the leadership. In 1972, Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law, as his second term was about to end, amid a resurgence of a nationalist movement that was questioning treaties on the US military bases and the U.S. economic "parity" rights.[7]
Political repression reached its height under Marcos. His preferential treatment for foreign investors further contributed to the deterioration of the Philippine economy, particularly with the use of government funds and foreign loans for the Marcos family and their cronies. Until the 1960s, the Philippines were economically among the most developed countries in Southeast Asia.
In the early years after the declaration of martial law, opposition against Marcos was spearheaded by the Left. A new Communist Party was established in 1968, followed by the New People's Army (NPA) in 1969. After Marcos's declaration of martial law in 19782, a broader political grouping called the National Democratic Front (NDF) was established with an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal and anti-fascist line. In the southern Philippines, the Muslim fought for secession through the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF).[8]
The assassination of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. in 1983 precipitated an economic and political crisis that further broadened the ranks of those opposed to Marcos. Strapped for funds, the Marcos regime agreed to a "stabilization plan" from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that plunged the economy back to 1975 levels. In February 1986, after holding blatantly fraudulent presidential elections, a civilian uprising supported by the military overthrew Marcos. Marcos's rival in the election, Corazon Aquino, became the new president.[9]
The economic and political crisis in the country continues even the restoration of formal democratic processes including the ratification of a new Constitution and the election of a Congress. The new Congress remains dominated by the elite, including former officials during the Marcos dictatorship. Economic policies remain essentially conservative with an Omnibus Investments Code that favors foreign investors and a limited land reform law. The new government has pledged to pay the entire foreign debt of US$28 billion, much of which had been incurred by Marcos under anomalous conditions. In 1990, the government agreed to another IMF stabilization plan that includes cutbacks on government budgets; reduction or elimination of subsidies and increased taxes. Graft and corruption remains endemic and has eroded support from the middle class.
The new government is essentially a fractious coalition of conservative forces representing traditional interests as exemplified by their policies on land reform, labor, foreign investments and their antagonism toward progressive groups. The perennial attempted coups by right-wing elements in the military are manifestations of power struggles among the members of the conservative elites, who ride on continuing discontent among the people brought about by the slow pace of economic and political change. Independent and progressive groups that work with peasants, workers, students and other sectors have sustained the struggle for more substantial social changes but face increasing repression, particularly from paramilitary (vigilante) groups formed with the tacit support of the government.
Politics has a major influence in the life of the Filipino. It is the major topic in conversation, especially in the provinces. A main issue in the government today is corruption.
Economy
Since the end of the Second World War, the Philippine economy has had a mixed history of growth and development. Over the years, the Philippines has gone from being one of the richest countries in Asia (following Japan) to being one of the poorest. Growth immediately after the war was rapid, but slowed over time. A severe recession in 1984-85 saw the economy shrink by more than 10%, and perceptions of political instability during the Aquino administration further dampened economic activity. During his administration, President Ramos introduced a broad range of economic reforms and initiatives designed to spur business growth and foreign investment. As a result, the Philippines saw a period of higher growth, but the Asian financial crisis triggered in 1997 slowed economic development in the Philippines once again. President Estrada managed to continue some of the reforms begun by the Ramos administration. Important laws to strengthen regulation and supervision of the banking system (General Banking Act) and securities markets (Securities Regulation Code), to liberalize foreign participation in the retail trade sector, and to promote and regulate electronic commerce were enacted during his abbreviated term. Despite occasional challenges to her presidency and resistance to pro-liberalization reforms by vested interests, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo has made considerable progress in restoring macroeconomic stability with the help of a well-regarded economic team. However, despite recent progress, fiscal problems remain one of the economy's weakest points and its biggest vulnerability.
Important sectors of the Philippine economy include agriculture and industry, particularly food processing, textiles and garments, and electronics and automobile parts. Most industries are concentrated in the urban areas around metropolitan Manila. Mining also has great potential in the Philippines, which possesses significant reserves of chromite, nickel, and copper. Significant natural-gas finds off the islands of Palawan have added to the country's substantial geothermal, hydro, and coal energy reserves.
Social Classes
There are three social classes in the country based on income of the national wealth. They are: 1) the rich-members of the rich class, representing 10% of the population. They own or earn about 90% of the wealth of the country. They are the wealthy industrialists, with big corporations, the owners of large haciendas or plantations, and the "new rich" who are honest, enterprising and hard-working people who invested their money wisely. The latter, however, include also the dishonest politicians and businessmen and others who acquire their fabulous fortune in government contracting, smuggling and other fraudulent means. 2)the middle class about 20% of the population, who are the professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers, accountants, etc.) skilled or semi-skilled workers in offices, factories or farms. They are the backbone of the nation. 3) the lower or poor class - who comprise about 70% of the population, but who earn only enough income to provide for their basic needs (food, rented homes, simple clothing). Often they cannot earn enough to provide for emergencies of future needs. The problem of every Philippine administration is to narrow the gap between the very rich and the very poor and to broaden the middle class.
Descendants of the Spanish colonizers and the Chinese immigrants are often perceived to be the elite. Many Filipinos of Spanish descent still own major national companies and haciendas, and hold key positions in multi-national companies. Those of Chinese descent have remained conspicuous due to widespread kidnapping. Chinese culture has been maintained by putting up Chinatowns in numerous key cities, such as Metro Manila, Davao, Cebu, Vigan, and Bacolod. Culture is also maintained by attendance of children to Chinese schools, where the medium of instruction is in Mandarin Chinese. However, most Chinese speak the Lan-nang (Philippine) variant of the Min Nan Language, which is similar to Taiwanese as their mother language. Among the subjects in Chinese schools are Chinese history, and Chinese literature, as well as the course requirements of the Philippine Department of Education. Thus, they have a greater load of study, which gives the impression that Chinese are good in Math. Although there are many Filipinos of mixed Chinese descent, and also those who have contributed to Philippine independence, based on a nationwide survey, they are one of the least accepted ethnic groups. This is probably due to the perception that the Chinese tend to stamp out competition in business. During the Marcos era, it was estimated that 40% of all banking transactions in the Philippines are done by the Chinese.[10]
Critique
The stereotypical Filipino commutes by jeep to work, goes to mass on Sunday, send messages by text in cell phones, is an aficionado of Basketball and is shocked that his cousin/brother is a born-again or attends a Protestant gathering. Filipinos love to put leaders on trial and turn up late in appointments. In typical homes whole clans, which include second cousins not to mention siblings,. all live under one roof. English is used in formal context such as school, government, media etc. but not used in the mainstream and is perceived as elitist. Rice is the staple diet. Jeepneys are ubiquitous. In semi-urban areas, tricycles are frequently found. In urban areas such as Manila and Quezon city, traffic can be horrible during rush hour.
Philippine society is always changing. Changes takes place when there have been a mass revolution. Revolution occurs when the people are not contented with the way the government runs the country. It so happened that every time the masses revolt is always the same time when they are experiencing poverty. This proves that economy, the people’s ideology and politics are interrelated to each other that when one breaks down the other two will follow. This is how Althusser’s historical materialism also goes.
Althusser believed that both the base and the superstructure were dependent on the whole. The advantage of practices over individuals as a starting point is that although each practice is only a part of a complex whole of society, a practice is a whole in itself in that it consists of various different kinds of parts; economic practice, for example, contains raw materials, tools, individual persons, etc. all united in a process of production. Althusser conceives of society as an interconnected collection of these wholes – economic practice, ideological practice and politico-legal practice – which together make up one complex whole. In his view all practices are dependent on each other. For example, amongst the relations of production are the buying and selling of labour power by capitalists and workers. These relations are part of economic practice, but can only exist within the context of a legal system which establishes individual agents as buyers and sellers; furthermore, the arrangement must be maintained by political and ideological means. From this it can be seen that aspects of economic practice depend on the superstructure and vice versa.
However, other characteristics of individuals, such as their beliefs about the good life or their metaphysical reflections on the nature of the self, do not easily fit into these categories. In Althusser’s view, our values, desires and preferences are inculcated in us by ideological practice, the sphere which has the defining property of constituting individuals as subjects through the process of interpellation. Ideological practice consists of an assortment of institutions called Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs), which include the family, the media, religious organisations and the education system, as well as the received ideas they propagate. There is, however, no one ISA that produces in us the belief that we are self-conscious agents.
Filipinos are easily affected by Althusser’s ISA. The media: one of Filipinos pastime is watching telivision or for the provinces listening to radios. Media plays an important role in developing Filipino ideologies. Filipinos believes the news or informations given by the mass media andas long as they believe that themedia is correct they will always try to follow the things that it says.
Education is a part of every human being who wishes to lift himself from the poverty that he is into. Students always think that their teachers or professors are always correct because they are superior to them. This will lead to such misinformation on the part of the student if what they learned is wrong.
Fipinos are religious people. Philippines is the only catholic country in Asia. This being the case Filipinos always believe in the things that their religion will tell them. They will always try to follow the instructions given by the highest official of the church. For example is El Shaddai and Iglesia ni Cristo, when election is nearing politicians will always, without any doubt, try to pursue or court the religious leaders so that they will be endorse as a candidate to be elected and if that will always be the case the Philippine government will always be in the hands of the wrong leader. The Philippines will not gain development instead it will be as stagnant as a water in a bowl and the search for development of the poor class will continue forever.
Filipinos are very close to their family. The family plays a very important role in developing a man’s kind of thinking. The father is the superior image in a family. Whatever he says will always be followed. Whatever he or the mother teaches to their children will be in their minds forever.
Introduction
It may be said that the Filipinos are intelligent, with retentive memory, quick perception, and talents for art and science. They also are gentle, friend]y, and cheerful people, noted for their courtesy and hospitality.
Filipinos are famous not only for their warm hospitality, but also for their close family ties. The parents work hard and sacrifice much for their children; in return, the children love and respect them and take good care of them in their old age.
Filipinos owing to their beautiful country, are passionately romantic. They are ardent in love as they are fierce in battle. They are born poets, musicians and artists.
Filipinos are a liberty-loving and brave people. They valiantly resisted the Spanish, American and Japanese invaders of their native land. They rank among the bravest people of the world. Filipino courage has been proven in the Battle of Mactan (1521), in the Battle of Tirad Pass (1899), in the battle of Bataan, Corregidor, Bessang Pass during World War II, and in many other battlefields.
Gratitude is another sterling trait of the Filipinos. They are grateful to those who have granted them favors or who are good to them. Their high sense of gratitude is expressed in the phrase Utang na loob (debt of honor).
Filipinos are cooperative. They value the virtue of helping each other and other people. They cherish the ancestral trait of bayanihan, which means cooperation. In rural areas, when a man is building, repairing or transferring a house to another place, the neighbors come to help him.
Foreign writers assert that the Filipinos are indolent. In reality they work hard in the face of very adverse conditions. They work on the farms from sunrise to sunset, though not from noon to 3 p.m. due to the scorching heat. They work hard in the sugarcane and pineapple plantations in Hawaii, the fruit orchards of California, the fish canneries of Alaska, and in the oil wells of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Arab countries of the Middle East.
Finally, the Filipinos are noted for their durability and resiliency. Through the ages they have met all kinds of calamities--revolts, revolutions, wars, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons and epidemics. Unlike the Polynesians of Oceania and the Indians of North Central and South Americas, they did not vanish by contact with the white race. They can assimilate any civilization and thrive in any climate. Against the adversities of life or nature, they merely bend, but never break. They possess the formidable durability of the narra tree and the resiliency of the bamboo.
Bibliography
Ang-See, Teresita, et.al. Ethnic Chinese in Southeast Asia. Oxford Books, 1999.
Brewster, Ben. Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
King, Jenny. Philippines: Know Your Homeland. Manila: Wordlink Books, 2004.
Trager, James. The People’s Chronology. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1992.
Vivar, Teofista, Evelina Viloria, et.al. Philippines: History and Government. Cebu:Vibal Publishing House Inc., 1999.
Health Alert Special Issue. The Philippine Republic. Quezon City: Health Action Information Network.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Arts
Department of Humanities
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in
PH 310: Dialectical Historical Materialism
Critique on Philippine Society
Rikka Joy K. Decella
ABP IV-1
Prof. Pinalas
[1] Teofista Vivar, Philippines: History and Government (Vibal Publishing House, 1999), 33.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid., p. 125.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid., p.170.
[7] Health Alert Special Issue: The Philippine Republic (Health Action Information Network), 116.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid., 117
[10] Teresita Ang-See et.al., Ethnic Chinese in South-East Asia (Oxford Books, 1999), 84.
Austronesian-speaking peoples initially populated Philippine islands. These peoples arrived by boat, and set up separate communities known as barangay, each of which was led by a chieftain or datu. Initially, the religious beliefs and practices were animistic, as was true throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
Economically, some of these communities were still engaged in hunting and fishing; others, in slash and burn agriculture; and still others developed the intricate rice terraces which are a hydraulic engineering marvel. These communities traded among themselves as well as with the people of neighboring and far-flung countries of what we now call China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, and the Arab world – to whom the peoples of the Philippines exported, among other things, betel nuts, pearls, tortoise shells and from whom the peoples in the Philippines developed its written scripts and from whom it imported porcelain, silk, bronze gongs, and semi-precious stones.
There were four social classes in ancient Filipino society: the chiefs, nobles, freemen and the slaves. The datu or the chief headed a barangay or community. His family, relatives and elders belonged to the maharlika group of nobles. The freemen or middle class belonged to the timawa group. Men who were born free or freed from slavery composed the lowest social class because they had no property and were under the control of their master.[1]
The unit of government was the barangay. The barangay varied in population from 30 to 100 families. The early barangays were independent of each other. The head was called datu and was the chief executive, legislator, judge, and military commander.[2]
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, the indios (natives) had reached different levels of political development, including simple communal groups, debt peonage (often erroneously described as slavery) and proto-feudal confederations.
The Spaniards imposed a feudal system, concentrating populations under their control into towns and estates. During the first two centuries of their occupation, the Spaniards used the Philippines mainly as a connecting point for their China-Acapulco (Mexico) trade. The country's economic backwardness was reinforced by Roman Catholicism, which was practiced in a form that retained many pre-colonial elements such as animism while incorporating feudal aspects of the colonizers' religion such as dogmatism, authoritarianism and patriarchal oppression. The Spaniards were never able to consolidate political control over the entire archipelago, with Muslims and indigenous resisting the colonizers most effectively. Among the groups that were subjugated, there were numerous localized revolts throughout the Spanish occupation.
In the 19th century, the Philippines was opened to world trade, allowing the limited entry of liberal ideas. By the late 19th century, there was a distinct Filipino nationalist movement, which erupted into a revolution in 1896, culminating with the establishment of Asia's first republican government in 1898.
Spain laid the foundation for a feudal health care system. The religious orders built charity hospitals, often next to churches, dispensing services to the indio. Medical education was not extended to the indio until late in the 19th century, through the University of Santo Tomas. This feudal system of the rich extending charity to the poor persists to this day among many church-run as well as non-sectarian institutions.
Despite the 333 years of Spanish colonization and political rule,the Spaniards have not really conquered the Filipinos. Throughout the islands there were Filipinos who opposed Spanish sovereignty.
The Filipinos fought in no les than a hundred revolts. These revolts failed ,for gallantry and courage alone were not enough to crush superior Spanish arms. Militarily, the Filipinos were not prepared to fight. Lacking training in warfare and without superior arms to fight with.
The ideas of liberalism, a product of French revolution, spread throughout Europe and other parts of the world. The motto, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity became the battlecry especially of people who were under foreign rule. The political theories of social philosophers like Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and John Locke became very popular because these theories criticized absolutism. These social philosophers believe that people had the right to change and establish a new government if the existing government no longer meet their needs.[3]
These ideas spread to the Philippines and helped erase from the minds of certain Filipinos, notably the intelligentsia, false ideas about human rights.[4]
A new group in Philippine society emerged as a result of the economic prosperity. The middle class was composed of businessmen, farmers, teachers and other professionals who were greatly benefited by the improved economy of the colony. They soon occupied a high position in the society. When they became influential they criticized the unequal treatment of the Spanish authorities towards the Filipinos. They echoed the sentiments of Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau and others on the art of humane management of the government.[5]
The first Philippine Republic was short-lived. Spain had lost a war with the United States. The Philippines was illegally ceded to the United States at the Treaty of Paris for US$20 million, together with Cuba and Puerto Rico.
A Filipino-American War broke out as the United States attempted to establish control over the islands. The war lasted for more than 10 years, resulting in the death of more than 600,000 Filipinos. Historians have described the little-known war as the "first Vietnam", where US troops first used tactics such as strategic hamleting and scorched-earth policy to "pacify" the natives.
The United States established an economic system giving the colonizers full rights to the country's resources. The Spanish feudal system was not dismantled; in fact, through the system of land registration that favored the upper Filipino classes, tenancy became more widespread during the US occupation. A native elite, including physicians trained in the United States, was groomed to manage the economic and political system of the country. The U.S. also introduced western models of educational and health-care systems, which reinforced elitism, and a colonial mentality that persists to this day, mixed with the Spanish feudal patron-client relationship.
Militant peasant and workers' groups were formed during the U.S. occupation despite the repressive situation. A movement for Philippine independence, involving diverse groups, continued throughout the occupation. A Commonwealth government was established in 1935 to allow limited self-rule but the Second World War and the Japanese occupation interrupted this. Mainly socialists and communists, known by their acronym, HUKS, led the guerilla movement against Japanese fascism.
The road to self-rule and independence was a thorny one. It began with attempts for reforms under Spain. When this does not materialize, the Filipinos rose up in arms, first against Spain and then against the United States, until finally succeeding in securing autonomy and a promise of independence from the Americans. However, this dream was unfortunately shattered when the Japanese invaded and occupied the Philippines for four years. The Japanese tried to win the Filipinos with their promise of Asia for the Asians, but to no avail. The Japanese ruled with an iron hand and the Filipinos, although subjected to untold sufferings and hardships, were able to endure because of the will to live. The Filipinos were finally liberated from the Japanese when the latter surrendered to the Americans on August 15, 1945. The Commonwealth government returned to the Philippines from the US to complete the ten-year transition for independence. The Filipinos quest for independence finally ended with the proclamation of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946.[6]
Philippine Society
Politics
The political system of the Philippines was basically pattered after the U.S., with a bicameral legislature and a president elected every four years, limited to one re-election. Philippine democracy remained elitist with two political parties taking turns at the leadership. In 1972, Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law, as his second term was about to end, amid a resurgence of a nationalist movement that was questioning treaties on the US military bases and the U.S. economic "parity" rights.[7]
Political repression reached its height under Marcos. His preferential treatment for foreign investors further contributed to the deterioration of the Philippine economy, particularly with the use of government funds and foreign loans for the Marcos family and their cronies. Until the 1960s, the Philippines were economically among the most developed countries in Southeast Asia.
In the early years after the declaration of martial law, opposition against Marcos was spearheaded by the Left. A new Communist Party was established in 1968, followed by the New People's Army (NPA) in 1969. After Marcos's declaration of martial law in 19782, a broader political grouping called the National Democratic Front (NDF) was established with an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal and anti-fascist line. In the southern Philippines, the Muslim fought for secession through the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF).[8]
The assassination of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. in 1983 precipitated an economic and political crisis that further broadened the ranks of those opposed to Marcos. Strapped for funds, the Marcos regime agreed to a "stabilization plan" from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that plunged the economy back to 1975 levels. In February 1986, after holding blatantly fraudulent presidential elections, a civilian uprising supported by the military overthrew Marcos. Marcos's rival in the election, Corazon Aquino, became the new president.[9]
The economic and political crisis in the country continues even the restoration of formal democratic processes including the ratification of a new Constitution and the election of a Congress. The new Congress remains dominated by the elite, including former officials during the Marcos dictatorship. Economic policies remain essentially conservative with an Omnibus Investments Code that favors foreign investors and a limited land reform law. The new government has pledged to pay the entire foreign debt of US$28 billion, much of which had been incurred by Marcos under anomalous conditions. In 1990, the government agreed to another IMF stabilization plan that includes cutbacks on government budgets; reduction or elimination of subsidies and increased taxes. Graft and corruption remains endemic and has eroded support from the middle class.
The new government is essentially a fractious coalition of conservative forces representing traditional interests as exemplified by their policies on land reform, labor, foreign investments and their antagonism toward progressive groups. The perennial attempted coups by right-wing elements in the military are manifestations of power struggles among the members of the conservative elites, who ride on continuing discontent among the people brought about by the slow pace of economic and political change. Independent and progressive groups that work with peasants, workers, students and other sectors have sustained the struggle for more substantial social changes but face increasing repression, particularly from paramilitary (vigilante) groups formed with the tacit support of the government.
Politics has a major influence in the life of the Filipino. It is the major topic in conversation, especially in the provinces. A main issue in the government today is corruption.
Economy
Since the end of the Second World War, the Philippine economy has had a mixed history of growth and development. Over the years, the Philippines has gone from being one of the richest countries in Asia (following Japan) to being one of the poorest. Growth immediately after the war was rapid, but slowed over time. A severe recession in 1984-85 saw the economy shrink by more than 10%, and perceptions of political instability during the Aquino administration further dampened economic activity. During his administration, President Ramos introduced a broad range of economic reforms and initiatives designed to spur business growth and foreign investment. As a result, the Philippines saw a period of higher growth, but the Asian financial crisis triggered in 1997 slowed economic development in the Philippines once again. President Estrada managed to continue some of the reforms begun by the Ramos administration. Important laws to strengthen regulation and supervision of the banking system (General Banking Act) and securities markets (Securities Regulation Code), to liberalize foreign participation in the retail trade sector, and to promote and regulate electronic commerce were enacted during his abbreviated term. Despite occasional challenges to her presidency and resistance to pro-liberalization reforms by vested interests, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo has made considerable progress in restoring macroeconomic stability with the help of a well-regarded economic team. However, despite recent progress, fiscal problems remain one of the economy's weakest points and its biggest vulnerability.
Important sectors of the Philippine economy include agriculture and industry, particularly food processing, textiles and garments, and electronics and automobile parts. Most industries are concentrated in the urban areas around metropolitan Manila. Mining also has great potential in the Philippines, which possesses significant reserves of chromite, nickel, and copper. Significant natural-gas finds off the islands of Palawan have added to the country's substantial geothermal, hydro, and coal energy reserves.
Social Classes
There are three social classes in the country based on income of the national wealth. They are: 1) the rich-members of the rich class, representing 10% of the population. They own or earn about 90% of the wealth of the country. They are the wealthy industrialists, with big corporations, the owners of large haciendas or plantations, and the "new rich" who are honest, enterprising and hard-working people who invested their money wisely. The latter, however, include also the dishonest politicians and businessmen and others who acquire their fabulous fortune in government contracting, smuggling and other fraudulent means. 2)the middle class about 20% of the population, who are the professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers, accountants, etc.) skilled or semi-skilled workers in offices, factories or farms. They are the backbone of the nation. 3) the lower or poor class - who comprise about 70% of the population, but who earn only enough income to provide for their basic needs (food, rented homes, simple clothing). Often they cannot earn enough to provide for emergencies of future needs. The problem of every Philippine administration is to narrow the gap between the very rich and the very poor and to broaden the middle class.
Descendants of the Spanish colonizers and the Chinese immigrants are often perceived to be the elite. Many Filipinos of Spanish descent still own major national companies and haciendas, and hold key positions in multi-national companies. Those of Chinese descent have remained conspicuous due to widespread kidnapping. Chinese culture has been maintained by putting up Chinatowns in numerous key cities, such as Metro Manila, Davao, Cebu, Vigan, and Bacolod. Culture is also maintained by attendance of children to Chinese schools, where the medium of instruction is in Mandarin Chinese. However, most Chinese speak the Lan-nang (Philippine) variant of the Min Nan Language, which is similar to Taiwanese as their mother language. Among the subjects in Chinese schools are Chinese history, and Chinese literature, as well as the course requirements of the Philippine Department of Education. Thus, they have a greater load of study, which gives the impression that Chinese are good in Math. Although there are many Filipinos of mixed Chinese descent, and also those who have contributed to Philippine independence, based on a nationwide survey, they are one of the least accepted ethnic groups. This is probably due to the perception that the Chinese tend to stamp out competition in business. During the Marcos era, it was estimated that 40% of all banking transactions in the Philippines are done by the Chinese.[10]
Critique
The stereotypical Filipino commutes by jeep to work, goes to mass on Sunday, send messages by text in cell phones, is an aficionado of Basketball and is shocked that his cousin/brother is a born-again or attends a Protestant gathering. Filipinos love to put leaders on trial and turn up late in appointments. In typical homes whole clans, which include second cousins not to mention siblings,. all live under one roof. English is used in formal context such as school, government, media etc. but not used in the mainstream and is perceived as elitist. Rice is the staple diet. Jeepneys are ubiquitous. In semi-urban areas, tricycles are frequently found. In urban areas such as Manila and Quezon city, traffic can be horrible during rush hour.
Philippine society is always changing. Changes takes place when there have been a mass revolution. Revolution occurs when the people are not contented with the way the government runs the country. It so happened that every time the masses revolt is always the same time when they are experiencing poverty. This proves that economy, the people’s ideology and politics are interrelated to each other that when one breaks down the other two will follow. This is how Althusser’s historical materialism also goes.
Althusser believed that both the base and the superstructure were dependent on the whole. The advantage of practices over individuals as a starting point is that although each practice is only a part of a complex whole of society, a practice is a whole in itself in that it consists of various different kinds of parts; economic practice, for example, contains raw materials, tools, individual persons, etc. all united in a process of production. Althusser conceives of society as an interconnected collection of these wholes – economic practice, ideological practice and politico-legal practice – which together make up one complex whole. In his view all practices are dependent on each other. For example, amongst the relations of production are the buying and selling of labour power by capitalists and workers. These relations are part of economic practice, but can only exist within the context of a legal system which establishes individual agents as buyers and sellers; furthermore, the arrangement must be maintained by political and ideological means. From this it can be seen that aspects of economic practice depend on the superstructure and vice versa.
However, other characteristics of individuals, such as their beliefs about the good life or their metaphysical reflections on the nature of the self, do not easily fit into these categories. In Althusser’s view, our values, desires and preferences are inculcated in us by ideological practice, the sphere which has the defining property of constituting individuals as subjects through the process of interpellation. Ideological practice consists of an assortment of institutions called Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs), which include the family, the media, religious organisations and the education system, as well as the received ideas they propagate. There is, however, no one ISA that produces in us the belief that we are self-conscious agents.
Filipinos are easily affected by Althusser’s ISA. The media: one of Filipinos pastime is watching telivision or for the provinces listening to radios. Media plays an important role in developing Filipino ideologies. Filipinos believes the news or informations given by the mass media andas long as they believe that themedia is correct they will always try to follow the things that it says.
Education is a part of every human being who wishes to lift himself from the poverty that he is into. Students always think that their teachers or professors are always correct because they are superior to them. This will lead to such misinformation on the part of the student if what they learned is wrong.
Fipinos are religious people. Philippines is the only catholic country in Asia. This being the case Filipinos always believe in the things that their religion will tell them. They will always try to follow the instructions given by the highest official of the church. For example is El Shaddai and Iglesia ni Cristo, when election is nearing politicians will always, without any doubt, try to pursue or court the religious leaders so that they will be endorse as a candidate to be elected and if that will always be the case the Philippine government will always be in the hands of the wrong leader. The Philippines will not gain development instead it will be as stagnant as a water in a bowl and the search for development of the poor class will continue forever.
Filipinos are very close to their family. The family plays a very important role in developing a man’s kind of thinking. The father is the superior image in a family. Whatever he says will always be followed. Whatever he or the mother teaches to their children will be in their minds forever.
Introduction
It may be said that the Filipinos are intelligent, with retentive memory, quick perception, and talents for art and science. They also are gentle, friend]y, and cheerful people, noted for their courtesy and hospitality.
Filipinos are famous not only for their warm hospitality, but also for their close family ties. The parents work hard and sacrifice much for their children; in return, the children love and respect them and take good care of them in their old age.
Filipinos owing to their beautiful country, are passionately romantic. They are ardent in love as they are fierce in battle. They are born poets, musicians and artists.
Filipinos are a liberty-loving and brave people. They valiantly resisted the Spanish, American and Japanese invaders of their native land. They rank among the bravest people of the world. Filipino courage has been proven in the Battle of Mactan (1521), in the Battle of Tirad Pass (1899), in the battle of Bataan, Corregidor, Bessang Pass during World War II, and in many other battlefields.
Gratitude is another sterling trait of the Filipinos. They are grateful to those who have granted them favors or who are good to them. Their high sense of gratitude is expressed in the phrase Utang na loob (debt of honor).
Filipinos are cooperative. They value the virtue of helping each other and other people. They cherish the ancestral trait of bayanihan, which means cooperation. In rural areas, when a man is building, repairing or transferring a house to another place, the neighbors come to help him.
Foreign writers assert that the Filipinos are indolent. In reality they work hard in the face of very adverse conditions. They work on the farms from sunrise to sunset, though not from noon to 3 p.m. due to the scorching heat. They work hard in the sugarcane and pineapple plantations in Hawaii, the fruit orchards of California, the fish canneries of Alaska, and in the oil wells of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Arab countries of the Middle East.
Finally, the Filipinos are noted for their durability and resiliency. Through the ages they have met all kinds of calamities--revolts, revolutions, wars, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons and epidemics. Unlike the Polynesians of Oceania and the Indians of North Central and South Americas, they did not vanish by contact with the white race. They can assimilate any civilization and thrive in any climate. Against the adversities of life or nature, they merely bend, but never break. They possess the formidable durability of the narra tree and the resiliency of the bamboo.
Bibliography
Ang-See, Teresita, et.al. Ethnic Chinese in Southeast Asia. Oxford Books, 1999.
Brewster, Ben. Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays. New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
King, Jenny. Philippines: Know Your Homeland. Manila: Wordlink Books, 2004.
Trager, James. The People’s Chronology. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1992.
Vivar, Teofista, Evelina Viloria, et.al. Philippines: History and Government. Cebu:Vibal Publishing House Inc., 1999.
Health Alert Special Issue. The Philippine Republic. Quezon City: Health Action Information Network.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Arts
Department of Humanities
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in
PH 310: Dialectical Historical Materialism
Critique on Philippine Society
Rikka Joy K. Decella
ABP IV-1
Prof. Pinalas
[1] Teofista Vivar, Philippines: History and Government (Vibal Publishing House, 1999), 33.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid., p. 125.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid., p.170.
[7] Health Alert Special Issue: The Philippine Republic (Health Action Information Network), 116.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid., 117
[10] Teresita Ang-See et.al., Ethnic Chinese in South-East Asia (Oxford Books, 1999), 84.
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